2022 Progress toward the SDGs, Goal #10 Reduced Inequalities

Before the COVID-19 crisis, encouraging signs across a number of indicators suggested that income inequality was narrowing. In many countries, for instance, the incomes of the poorest people rose faster than the national average, though inequalities in other areas persisted. Now, the effects of the pandemic appear to be reversing any positive trends. Those with relatively low incomes are at risk of falling behind. The pandemic has also intensified structural and systemic discrimination. Emerging markets and developing economies are experiencing slow recoveries, widening disparities in income between countries. The number of refugees worldwide reached the highest absolute number on record in 2021; sadly, that year also saw a record number of migrant deaths. Meanwhile, the war in Ukraine rages on, forcing even more people from their homes and creating one of the largest refugee crises in recent memory.

The war in Ukraine is adding to already record numbers of refugees worldwide

By mid-2021, the number of people forced to flee their countries due to war, conflict, persecution, human rights violations, and events seriously disturbing public order had grown to 24.5 million, the highest absolute number on record. For every 100,000 people worldwide, 311 are refugees outside their country of origin. This is a 44 per cent rise from 216 per 100,000 people in 2015. In absolute terms, countries in Northern Africa and Western Asia were the largest regional source of refugees (8.4 million), followed by countries in sub-Saharan Africa (6.7 million), and Latin America and the Caribbean (4.5 million).

The ongoing war in Ukraine has created the worst refugee crisis in recent history. As of 23 May 2022, the movement of more than 6 million people from Ukraine to other countries has been registered, the majority of whom are women and children. In addition, at least 8 million people have been displaced inside the country to escape the conflict.

Large numbers of migrants lost their lives last year on sometimes treacherous migratory routes

Last year, 5,895 people died fleeing their countries via various – sometimes dangerous – routes. This surpasses pre-pandemic figures and makes 2021 the deadliest year on record for migrants since 2017, according to the International Organization for Migration's Missing Migrants Project. The widespread impact of the pandemic forced many people seeking safety, reunification with family, decent work and better opportunities to take risky migratory routes.

At least 3,411 people died on maritime and land routes to and through Europe in 2021 - the majority of migration-related fatalities recorded worldwide. On the overseas route in the Atlantic towards Spain's Canary Islands, nearly 1,180 deaths were recorded, the most fatalities on this route since data collection began in 2014. It was also the deadliest year on record for migrants along the border between the United States and Mexico, where at least 717 people died, 51 per cent more than in 2020.

COVID-19 increased relative poverty in many countries, but others bucked the trend

The proportion of the population living on less than half the national median income is an important measure of social exclusion, relative poverty and inequality of income distribution within a country. If this proportion grows, it indicates the poorest are falling behind in relative terms. Before COVID-19, 13 per cent of people, on average, lived on less than half the national median income. However, this average share masks wide variations, from less than 5 per cent in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan to around 25 per cent in Brazil and South Africa.

Currently, only 18 countries have data for 2020, most of which are in Latin America and the Caribbean. Among those, two thirds saw rates of relative low income increase in 2020, suggesting that the effects of the pandemic have intensified social exclusion. However, other countries experienced large declines. Brazil, for example, lowered the share of people living on less than half the median income from 24.1 to 18.3 per cent, thanks to large social transfers targeted to the poorest people in that society.

The pandemic has caused a rise in income inequality, jeopardizing two decades of steady progress

The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic is exacerbating global income inequality. As a result, the steady progress over the last two decades is now in jeopardy. Projections suggest that between-country inequality rose by 1.2 per cent between 2017 and 2021, the first such increase in a generation. Before the pandemic, inequality was expected to have fallen by 2.6 per cent over the same period.

Forecasts suggest that income inequality within countries will also have increased in emerging market and developing countries. Although the magnitude of this increase is expected to be relatively small – around 1 per cent, on average – it halts the steady decline in income inequality seen in these countries since the start of the millennium. Worse yet, this increase may become entrenched, since pandemic-induced disruptions to education and the disproportionate adverse effects on low-income households may worsen intergenerational mobility. Meanwhile, high inflation and surging public debt levels may hamper countries' ability to support these vulnerable groups.

Discrimination remains widespread, with women and persons with disabilities at heightened risk

The spread of COVID-19 has intensified structural and systemic discrimination and pervasive inequalities, which harm millions of people and hold back every society. Addressing discrimination through evidence-based policies allows societies to transform into more inclusive, equal, resilient, just and sustainable systems anchored in human rights.

Roughly one in five people have experienced discrimination on at least one of the grounds prohibited under international human rights law, according to data from 49 countries and territories collected between 2017 and 2021. In countries where disaggregated data are available, women are more than twice as likely as men to experience discrimination on the grounds of sex. Moreover, women living in urban areas are slightly more likely to experience discrimination than their rural counterparts. Among persons with disabilities, it is pervasive, with about one third reporting personal experiences of discrimination.

Workers' share of national income is eroding, exacerbating income inequality

Labour income data are key to understanding inequality. Measuring labour's contribution to GDP provides an indication of whether higher national income will lead to increased material living standards for workers. While employment is the main source of income for many workers, income derived from capital disproportionately benefits the affluent. Therefore, a decline in the labour share of income from 2014 to 2019 ‐ from 54.1 per cent to 52.6 per cent ‐ represents upward pressure on inequality. This drop is consistent with other related evidence going back to the 1970s, suggesting that workers are losing relative earning power over the long term.

As a region, Europe and Northern America is driving the decline in the labour income share, given its weight in overall global income. Oceania (excluding Australia and New Zealand) and Central and Southern Asia have also experienced significant declines. On a more positive note, data from sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, and Eastern and South-Eastern Asia showed increases in the labour income share, though these increases are typically occurring from a lower starting point.

Database is available at https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/.
 

2022 Progress toward the SDGs, Goal #9 Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure

 

The COVID-19 pandemic has demonstrated the importance of industrialization, techological innovation and resilient infrastructure in building back better and achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. Economies with a diversified industrial sector and strong infrastructure (e.g., transport, Internet connectivity and utility services) sustained less damage and are experiencing faster recovery. In 2021, global manufacturing rebounded from the pandemic, although the recovery remains incomplete and uneven. In LDCs, recovery has been sluggish and remains uncertain; almost one in three manufacturing jobs was negatively impacted by the crisis. Women, youth and low- and middle-skilled workers suffered the most losses. Overall, higher-technology industries performed better and recovered faster, providing a strong example of how important technological innovation is to achieving Goal 9.

Manufacturing in more developed countries has rebounded, leaving least developed countries behind

After dropping 1.3 per cent in 2020, global manufacturing production grew by 7.2 per cent in 2021, surpassing its pre-pandemic level. However, recovery remains uneven among countries. High-income countries benefited from massive policy support to firms and households and the rapid roll-out of effective vaccines. In contrast, recovery in LDCs has been sluggish, due to subdued and volatile global demand, global trade disruption and tighter domestic economic policies.

The global share of manufacturing value added (MVA) in total GDP increased from 16.2 per cent in 2015 to 16.9 per cent in 2021. Eastern and South-Eastern Asia expanded its share from 25.5 to 26.1 per cent over the same period, due to strong global demand for manufacturing and exports in the region. However, the share in LDCs was only 12.5 per cent in 2021. The same disparities are reflected in MVA per capita. While Europe and Northern America reached an all-time high of $5,000 in 2021, MVA per capita in LDCs decreased to $135 – comparable to 2018.

Jobs in manufacturing have not regained ground lost during the pandemic

As a result of prolonged lockdowns and travel bans, nearly one in three jobs in manufacturing supply chains worldwide have likely been terminated, seen a reduction in working hours or pay, or been the target of other cutbacks. Globally, the share of manufacturing jobs in total employment declined from 13.7 per cent in 2019 to 13.1 per cent in 2020. The impact has been particularly pronounced in middle-income countries, which have long leveraged participation in production chains as a source of employment and growth. The decline in manufacturing employment in middle-income countries sank to 8.9 per cent in 2020, compared with 3.4 per cent in low-income and 3.9 per cent in high-income countries. Some of the worst effects were felt in garment supply chains, which employ large shares of women workers. Despite a rebound in 2021, the fragile and uneven nature of the recovery means that global manufacturing employment has not yet returned to pre-pandemic levels. Fiscal stimulus and vaccination coverage were crucial factors in determining the strength of labour market recovery in 2021.

The passenger airline industry is still struggling to recoup catastrophic losses

The number of airline passengers travelling internationally totalled 1.8 billion in 2020, a decline of 60 per cent from the previous year. Seat capacity dropped by half, bringing air traffic totals down to levels not seen since 2003. Financial losses for the airline industry totalled $370 billion in 2020, and airports and air navigation services providers lost a further $115 billion and $13 billion, respectively. Global air passenger traffic recovered modestly in 2021 with 2.3 billion passengers, compared with 4.5 billion in 2019, resulting in financial losses of $324 billion. In 2021, domestic air traffic reached 68 per cent of 2019 levels, while international traffic remained weak – at 28 per cent – mostly due to sporadic outbreaks of COVID-19 variants and travel restrictions.

In contrast with passenger traffic, air cargo traffic exceeded pre-pandemic levels by the beginning of 2021 and is maintaining robust growth. This upturn has been driven by a resurgence of economic activity along with a roaring e-commerce industry during the pandemic.

The lack of credit or other support has dealt a death blow to many small-scale industries

Small-scale enterprises were hit hard by the pandemic, and many collapsed. Due to their scale, limited financial resources and greater dependency on supply chains, these industries are more vulnerable to economic downturns than their larger-scale counterparts. The impact has been even more severe for small informal enterprises, partly because they have been unable to access formal lines of credit or COVID-19-related government support.

Government support plays a key role in helping small enterprises survive and thrive during and after a crisis. However, only about one in three small manufacturers are benefiting from a loan or line of credit, according to limited survey data collected in 2020–2021. Such stimulus is rarely available in low-income countries. Only 15.7 per cent of small-scale industries in Africa received those forms of credit, compared with 44.2 per cent in Latin America and the Caribbean.

Higher-technology industries are proving far more resilient in crises than their lower-tech counterparts

Higher-technology manufacturing industries fared better than lower-tech industries during the pandemic, and therefore recovered faster. Most industries using medium and high technology – such as computers, electronics and pharmaceuticals – have already returned to pre-pandemic production levels, except for motor vehicle and other transport equipment manufacturing. Production of motor vehicles is facing larger challenges worldwide due to supply chain disruptions of resources and intermediate goods. In comparison, lower-tech industries, such as textiles and clothing, or coke and refined petroleum products, remain below their pre-pandemic levels. The manufacture of basic consumer goods, such as food products, has seen a stable growth trajectory since the pandemic, with limited losses.

According to 2019 data, the share of medium- and high-tech manufacturing in total manufacturing in Europe and Northern America was 47.7 per cent compared with 21.4 per cent in sub-Saharan Africa and 10.5 per cent in LDCs.

Most of the world’s population are covered by a mobile-broadband signal, but blind spots remain

In most developing countries, mobile broadband (third generation (3G) or higher) is the main, and often, the only way to connect to the Internet. But in addition to connectivity, potential users need an Internet-enabled device and the skills to use it. The relatively high cost of such devices, along with the lack of literacy and digital skills, remain steep barriers to mobile Internet adoption and use.

Between 2015 and 2021, 4G network coverage doubled, reaching 88 per cent of the world’s population. Although 2021 estimates show that 95 per cent of the world’s population are covered by a mobile-broadband network, the gap remains significant for LDCs and landlocked developing countries, where 17 per cent of the population are without coverage. This means that SDG target 9.c – to provide universal and affordable access to the Internet in least developed countries by 2020 – has not been met.

While virtually all urban areas of the world are covered by a mobile-broadband network, gaps persist in rural areas. In LDCs, 14 per cent of the rural population have no mobile network coverage at all, while another 12 per cent have only 2G coverage.

Database is available at https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/.

2022 Progress toward the SDGs, Goal #8 Decent Work and Economic Growth

 

The COVID-19 pandemic precipitated the worst economic crisis in decades and reversed progress towards decent work for all. Although the global economy began to rebound in 2021, bringing some improvement in unemployment, recovery remains elusive and fragile. Recovery patterns also vary significantly across regions, countries, sectors and labour market groups. Developed economies are experiencing a more robust recovery, while least developed countries (LDCs) continue to struggle with weak economic growth and labour market fallout due to workplace closures. Many small firms, particularly those in low- and lower-middle-income countries, are especially disadvantaged, with limited capacity to remain viable. Labour market groups most affected by the crisis - women, youth and persons with disabilities - are the last to recover. By the end of 2021, global economic recovery had been hampered by new waves of COVID-19 infections, rising inflationary pressures, major supply-chain disruptions, policy uncertainties and persistent labour market challenges. The conflict in Ukraine is expected to seriously set back global economic growth in 2022.

Various shocks, including the war in Ukraine, continue to hinder robust economic recovery

The global economy is slowly improving, although recovery remains fragile and uneven. Globally, real gross domestic product (GDP) per capita increased by 1.4 per cent in 2019, then fell sharply in 2020, by 4.4 per cent, rebounding in 2021 at an estimated growth rate of 4.4 per cent. Before the Ukraine crisis, global real GDP per capita was projected to increase by 3.0 per cent in 2022, and 2.5 per cent in 2023. The war in that country is now likely to cut growth to 2.1 per cent in 2022.

For LDCs, real GDP grew by 5.0 per cent in 2019, and showed zero growth in 2020 due to pandemic-related disruptions. Real GDP of LDCs is estimated to have increased by 1.4 per cent in 2021. It is projected to rise by 4.0 per cent in 2022, and 5.7 per cent in 2023 - still well below the 7 per cent target envisioned in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

The pandemic has resulted in volatile shifts in labour productivity, affecting small firms and the poorest countries the most

The impact of COVID-19 has resulted in unprecedented and volatile shifts in global labour productivity. In 2020, sharp declines were seen in both output and employment, and global output per worker dropped by 0.6 per cent - the first decline since 2009. However, since working hours plunged by 8.9 per cent, productivity measured on a per-hour basis surged by 4.9 per cent. Lower-productivity firms and sectors and lower-paid workers were disproportionately affected by the pandemic, while high-productivity enterprises and high earners saw far less damage. Many small firms are disadvantaged, with limited capacity to remain viable over an extended period. In 2021, global output per worker rebounded sharply, rising by 3.2 per cent; however, productivity in LDCs declined by 1.6 per cent. The average worker in a high-income country produced 13.6 times more output than the average worker in a low-income country in 2021.

Labour market recovery remains shaky

The global unemployment rate is projected to remain above its 2019 level of 5.4 per cent, at least until 2023. In 2021, unemployment declined slightly to 6.2 per cent, which still translates into 28 million more unemployed persons in 2021 than in 2019. Furthermore, the level of unemployment underestimates the full employment impact of the COVID-19 crisis, since many who left the labour force have not returned. It also does not reflect the reduction in working hours for those who remained employed. In 2021, 4.3 per cent of global working hours were lost relative to the fourth quarter of 2019 - equivalent to a deficit of 125 million full-time jobs (based on a 48-hour work week). Labour market recovery has been inadequate and unequal. In 2021, the unemployment rate improved the most in high-income countries, but worsened in LDCs, landlocked developing countries (LLDCs) and small island developing States (SIDS). The groups that were disproportionately impacted since the onset of the pandemic – women, youth and persons with disabilities – are having the hardest time recovering.

Informal employment was not an option for many workers displaced at the start of the pandemic

In 2019, 2 billion people worldwide (60 per cent of global employment) worked in the informal sector. Although these jobs are characterized by low quality and lack of social protection, they have traditionally been a source of income for workers displaced from the formal sector. This was not the case in the early months of the pandemic due to COVID-19 containment measures and mobility restrictions. Rather than becoming unemployed or shifting to informal jobs, as in previous crises, laid-off employees and self-employed workers left the labour force. Emerging evidence from 29 countries shows that informal employment was disproportionately affected by job losses in most of these countries in 2020. In Latin America and the Caribbean, informal workers were twice as likely to lose their jobs than their formal counterparts. As economic activity gradually resumed, informal employment, especially self-employment, has strongly rebounded in some regions, and many informal workers have returned from inactivity. For example, informal jobs accounted for over 70 per cent of net job creation in many Latin American countries since mid-2020.

Rising poverty and pandemic-related disruptions are forcing millions of children into child labour

Worldwide, 160 million children (63 million girls and 97 million boys) were engaged in child labour at the beginning of 2020. This is an increase of 8.4 million children since 2016, translating to almost 1 out of 10 children engaged in child labour worldwide. Nearly half of them are involved in hazardous work that directly jeopardizes their health, safety or morals. Additional economic shocks and school closures caused by COVID-19 mean that children already in child labour may be working longer hours or under worsening conditions; many more may be forced into the worst forms of child labour due to job and income losses among vulnerable families. The latest evidence warns that, globally, 9 million additional children are at risk of being pushed into child labour by the end of 2022, compared to 2020, as a result of rising poverty driven by the pandemic.

Youth training, education and employment have suffered massive disruptions, with women facing the biggest challenges

The proportion of the world's youth not engaged in either education, employment or training (NEET) increased from 21.8 per cent in 2015-2019 to 23.3 per cent in 2020, due to the pandemic. This represents an increase of almost 20 million women and men aged 15 to 24. Although youth represented only 13 per cent of total employment before the crisis, they made up 34.2 per cent of the 2020 decline in employment. Meanwhile, both technical and vocational education and on-the-job training suffered massive disruptions, forcing many young people to quit their studies. Globally, young women are much more likely than young men to find themselves unemployed and without education or some form of training programme to fall back on. In 2020, the NEET rate was 31.5 per cent for young women, compared to 15.7 per cent for young men. The development and implementation of national youth employment strategies is increasing across most regions. More than half of the 81 reporting countries in 2021 have operationalized such strategies, while slightly less than one third have developed one, but have not provided conclusive evidence on implementation.

Database is available at https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/.

2022 Progress toward the SDGs, Goal #7 Affordable and Clean Energy

 

The world continues to advance towards sustainable energy targets. Nevertheless, the current pace of progress is insufficient to achieve Goal 7 by 2030. Improvements in energy efficiency, for example, will need to accelerate to reach the climate goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Hundreds of millions of people still lack access to electricity, and slow progress towards clean cooking solutions means that the health of 2.4 billion people is at risk. Huge disparities in access to modern sustainable energy persist, leaving the most vulnerable even further behind. In some countries, the COVID-19 pandemic has weakened or reversed advances already made. Rising commodity, energy and shipping prices have increased the cost of producing and transporting solar photovoltaics modules, wind turbines and biofuels worldwide, adding uncertainty to a development trajectory that is already far below Goal 7 ambitions. Achieving energy and climate goals will require continued policy support and a massive mobilization of public and private capital for clean and renewable energy, especially in developing countries.

Progress in electrification has slowed, with the challenge of reaching those hardest to reach

The global electricity access rate increased from 83 per cent in 2010 to 91 per cent in 2020. Over this period, the number of people without electricity shrank from 1.2 billion to 733 million. However, the pace of progress has slowed in recent years, due to COVID-19 and the increasing complexity of reaching those hardest to reach. In 2018–2020, the electricity access rate rose by an average of 0.5 percentage points annually compared to 0.8 percentage points in 2010–2018.

In 2020, over three quarters (77 per cent) of the global population without electricity lived in sub-Saharan Africa, mainly in rural areas. Due to economic pressures imposed by the pandemic, up to 90 million people connected to electricity in Africa and developing countries in Asia could not afford to have an extended bundle of services that year. If current trends continue, only 92 per cent of the world’s population will have access to electricity in 2030, leaving 670 million people unserved. A major push is needed to reach those living in least developed and in fragile and conflict-affected countries.

Intensified efforts are needed in least developed countries to jump-start access to clean cooking fuels and technologies

Between 2010 and 2020, the proportion of people with access to clean cooking fuels and technologies increased by 12 percentage points, reaching 69 per cent. This means that an estimated 2.4 billion people still relied on inefficient and polluting cooking systems in 2020. Much of the progress was concentrated in five countries: Brazil, China, India, Indonesia and Pakistan. Excluding those countries, the global access rate remained unchanged over this period. While more than half of those without access live in Asia, 19 of the 20 countries with the lowest proportion of the population with access were LDCs in Africa. If current trends continue, only 76 per cent of the global population will have access to clean cooking fuels and technologies by 2030. The adoption of clean cooking solutions can reduce health risks from household air pollution, support a green and healthy recovery and fuel economic growth in low- and middle-income countries.

Meeting global energy and climate objectives will require a major push in the deployment of renewables, with massive finance mobilization

The share of renewables in total final energy consumption reached 17.7 per cent in 2019, 1.6 percentage points higher than in 2010. However, total renewable energy consumption increased by a quarter over this period. The electricity sector continues to see the fastest progress: the share of renewables in that sector increased from 19.7 per cent in 2010 to 26.2 per cent in 2019. That said, the electricity sector represented only a fifth of global final energy consumption in 2019. The heat sector represents half of this global consumption, but progress there was negligible: the share of modern renewables totalled 10.1 per cent in 2019, a gain of less than 2 percentage points from 2010. Renewable energy used in transport reached 3.6 per cent in 2019, up from 2.6 per cent in 2010. Traditional uses of biomass – such as the burning of wood for heat – remained stable, still representing more than a third of total renewable energy use in 2019. Effective climate action will require

The target for global energy efficiency remains within reach, but only with significant investment on a systematic scale

Improving energy efficiency is fundamental to meeting global climate goals. The 2030 target calls for an annual improvement in energy intensity of 2.6 per cent, a doubling of the rate observed between 1990 and 2010. Global primary energy intensity – defined as the ratio of total energy supply to GDP – improved from 5.6 megajoules per US dollar (2017 purchasing power parity) in 2010 to 4.7 in 2019, with an average annual improvement rate of 1.9 per cent. To meet the Coal 7 target, and make up for lost time, energy intensity improvements until 2030 will need to average 3.2 per cent a year. The target remains within reach, but only with significant investment in cost-effective energy efficiency improvements on a systematic scale. Regional progress varies due to differences in economic structure, energy supply and electrification. The only region that has reached the target so far is Eastern and South-Eastern Asia, with an annual average rate of 2.7 per cent in 2010–2019, driven by strong economic growth.

International public financing for renewable energy had already slowed before the pandemic, despite the growing urgency of climate change

International public financial flows to developing countries in support of clean energy decreased for the second year in a row. They amounted to $10.9 billion in 2019, down by nearly 24 per cent from the previous year. The five-year moving average also decreased for the first time since 2008, from $17.5 billion in 2014–2018 to $16.6 billion in 2015–2019. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic may mean another drop in 2020.

Loans captured over 52 per cent of commitments in 2019. Grants comprised almost 17 per cent, signalling an increase in debt-free instruments to support developing countries. Another up-and-coming instrument is shares in collective investment vehicles, such as investment funds, which grew to $191 million in 2019, up by 91 per cent from 2018. LDCs received 25.2 per cent of commitments in 2019 compared with 21 per cent in 2018, but the amount decreased from $3.0 billion to $2.7 billion.

Database is available at https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/.

2022 Progress toward the SDGs, Goal #6 Clean Water and Sanitation

 

As the COVID-19 pandemic drags on, it becomes increasingly clear that safely managed drinking water, sanitation and hygiene services are vital to human health. But unless progress picks up speed - dramatically - billions of people will still lack these essential services in 2030. Water is fundamental to many other aspects of sustainable development and is under threat. Demand for water is rising due to rapid population growth, urbanization and increasing pressure from agriculture, industry and the energy sector. Decades of misuse, poor management and the over-extraction and contamination of freshwater and groundwater supplies have exacerbated water stress and deteriorated water-related ecosystems. This, in turn, affects human health, economic activities, and food and energy supplies. Urgent action is needed to shift the current trend. To ensure a sustainable and equitable distribution of water to meet all needs, the average global implementation rate of improved water resources management needs to double. Additional efforts are needed to increase investment in water and sanitation and to further cooperation among countries sharing transboundary waters.

Meeting drinking water, sanitation and hygiene targets by 2030 will require a fourfold increase in the pace of progress

The proportion of the global population using safely managed drinking water services increased from 70 per cent in 2015 to 74 per cent in 2020. Still, 2 billion people were without such services that year, including 1.2 billion people lacking even a basic level of service. Eight out of 10 people who lack even basic drinking water service live in rural areas, and about half of them live in LDCs. At the current rate of progress, the world will reach 81 per cent coverage by 2030, missing the target and leaving 1.6 billion people without safely managed drinking water supplies.

From 2015 to 2020, the world population using safely managed sanitation services increased from 47 per cent to 54 per cent. If historical rates of progress continue, the world will reach 67 per cent coverage by 2030, leaving 2.8 billion people without access. Over the same period, the population practising open defecation decreased by a third, from 739 million people to 494 million. The world is on track to eliminate open defecation by 2030.

Frequent and proper hand hygiene is essential to containing COVID-19 and controlling other infectious diseases. Yet, over 1 in 4 people still lack access to handwashing facilities with soap and water at home. Coverage increased from 67 per cent to 71 per cent from 2015 to 2020.

Universal access to drinking water, sanitation and hygiene is critical to global health. To reach universal coverage by 2030, current rates of progress would need to increase fourfold. Achieving these targets would save 829,000 lives annually. This is the number of people who currently die each year from diseases directly attributable to unsafe water, inadequate sanitation and poor hygiene practices.

The world's wetlands are being lost at an alarming rate; it's time to protect and restore them on a massive scale

Wetlands are considered the most biologically diverse of all ecosystems and are breeding grounds for 40 per cent of the world's plant and animal species. Unsustainable use and inappropriate management of wetlands not only result in the loss of ecosystem services but can also pose direct risks, including disease. Moreover, the degradation of wetlands releases stored carbon, fuelling climate change. Over the past 300 years, over 85 per cent of the planet's wetlands have been lost, mainly through drainage and land conversion, with many remaining wetland areas degraded. Since 1970, 81 per cent of species dependent on inland wetlands have declined faster than those relying on other biomes, and an increasing number are facing extinction.

Other water-related ecosystems across the planet – such as lakes, rivers and reservoirs – are also changing rapidly. One in five river basins have experienced high (i.e., above natural) fluctuations in surface water over the past five years. Population growth, changes to land cover and land use, and climate change are key drivers of these changes. Urgent efforts are needed to protect them and to prevent further degradation of these precious biological habitats.

Early remediation of water pollution will require active monitoring, which is sorely lacking in the poorest countries

Improving water quality is essential to protecting human and ecosystem health. Assessments in 2020 of rivers, lakes and aquifers in 97 countries showed that 60 per cent of water was of good ambient quality. However, of the 76,000 water bodies assessed, only 1 per cent were in the poorest countries. For at least 3 billion people, the quality of the water they rely upon is unknown due to the lack of monitoring. Data are also lacking on groundwater, which often represents the largest share of freshwater in a country. Out of all reporting countries, only around 60 per cent included information about groundwater.

Agricultural and untreated wastewater pose two of the gravest threats to environmental water quality globally since they release excess nutrients into rivers, lakes and aquifers, damaging ecosystem function. Accelerated progress is needed to enhance farming management practices and improve wastewater treatment rates to protect freshwater quality, especially in regions with high population growth, such as Africa. With a well-developed monitoring system, water-quality issues could be identified at an early stage, allowing mitigation measures to be introduced before severe deterioration occurs.

Stress on water resources in Northern Africa and Western Asia is already at dangerous levels

Water stress occurs when the ratio of freshwater withdrawn to total renewable freshwater resources is above the 25 per cent threshold. High water stress can have devastating consequences for the environment. It can also curtail or even reverse economic and social development, increasing competition and potential conflict among users. Globally, water stress reached a level of 18.6 per cent in 2019. Although it remained at a safe level (below 25 per cent), this average masks substantial regional variations. Northern Africa and Western Asia had a critical level of water stress that year, at 84.1 per cent, an increase of 13 per cent since 2015. More than 733 million people - 10 per cent of the global population - live in countries with high and critical levels of water stress (above 75 per cent).

Promoting and improving water-use efficiency relieve water stress. Water-use efficiency improved by 12 per cent from 2015 to 2109 - from $17.4 to $19.4 per cubic metre. But in agriculture, the largest water use sector, it was only $0.63 per cubic metre in 2019. Increasing the productivity of agricultural water is key to improving water-use efficiency, particularly in arid countries reliant on agriculture.

Most countries still lack cooperation agreements on shared water resources, a potential source of conflict

Transboundary rivers, lakes and aquifers are shared by 153 countries around the world. Ensuring that these waters are managed equitably, sustainably and peacefully, particularly in the context of climate change, requires countries to put in place operational arrangements for water cooperation. According to data collected from 129 countries, 32 countries reported that 90 per cent or more of their transboundary water was covered by operational arrangements in 2020, an increase from 22 countries in 2017. In Europe and Northern America, 24 out of 42 countries have such levels of coverage, compared to 5 out of 42 countries in sub-Saharan Africa and a total of three countries across the rest of the world. Accelerating progress will require that countries address data gaps (especially in relation to transboundary aquifers), scale up capacity development and financing, capitalize on global water conventions and the draft articles on the law of transboundary aquifers, and mobilize political will.

Database is available at https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/.